Cold War Study Guide and Review

Cold War

The USA versus USSR

What were the Ideological Differences Between America and Russia in 1945?

Capitalism v Communism

• Businesses / farms owned by private people
• Profit is good – a reward for risk-bearing
• VERSUS
• Businesses and farms owned by the state and…
• …run by the government for the benefit of all people
• Profit is a form of oppression

Democracy v Dictatorship

• Multi-party system
• Free elections
• Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws – separate executive and legislative branches
• VERSUS
• Elections to the ‘Soviets’
• One party only – the Communist party which…
• …rules the country
• Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator

Freedom v Human Rights

• ‘His Majesty’s Opposition’ – minority party in UK
• Protests and demonstrations
• Human rights respected in law
• VERSUS
• Dissidents imprisoned
• KGB arrest grumblers
• The gulag

Free Market v Command Economy

• Laws of supply and demand control production
• Competition keeps prices low and quality up – the weak go out of business
• Strikes and unemployment
• Freedom of choice
• VERSUS
• Workers ordered to a job / area
• Wages and hours fixed by law
• No unemployment – everyone has a job

Equal Opportunity v Equality

• Everyone has a chance to succeed
• Consumer economy
• Great differences in wealth and class – millionaires v poverty
• Private medicine, houses, etc  (health care is very good, but very expensive)
• VERSUS
• Poor standard of living – ‘producer’ goods (goods made are good for the producer, not necessarily good for the consumer) / empty shops
• Fewer very poor people
• Free health care / state-provided housing  (health care is poor, but available to everyone)

Free Press v Censorship

• Freedom of speech
• Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored
• Media openly criticize government (Washington Post , New York Times)
• VERSUS
• No freedom of speech
• The media are owned and run by the government
• Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia)

Cold War

Yalta and Potsdam 1

The origins of the Cold War – Yalta and Potsdam

Yalta

• February 1945
• Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill – the BIG THREE
• Yalta – southern Soviet Union on the Baltic Sea

Agreement?

• Germany to be divided into 4 zones, as would Berlin – GB, Fr, USA, USSR
• Poland to gain land from Germany, but lose some to USSR
• USSR to declare war on Japan 3 months after the end of European war
• USSR guarantees free elections for Eastern Europe

Changes

• On April 12, 1945 Roosevelt died
• Roosevelt was replaced by Truman – an openly anti-communist
• Truman said he would ‘get tough with the Russians’
• During the Potsdam Conference, Churchill lost the election and was replaced by Attlee

Potsdam

• July – August 1945, outside Berlin.  Germany had been defeated
• Change in the Big Three meant that the personalities had changed
• Disagreements at this conference saw the beginnings of the Cold War

Agreement?

• Plans for division of Germany agreed, Germany to pay reparations (USSR), war criminals to be tried, and United Nations set up
• Truman demanded USSR hold  free elections for Eastern Europe
• Stalin angry that Truman didn’t mention the atomic bomb which Stalin secretly knew about

Iron Curtain

• One year later Stalin set up the Iron Curtain
• Term coined by Winston Churchill in speech at Fulton, Missouri in 1946
• Border between East and West Europe – Stalin took control of Eastern Europe to act as a buffer zone to any future invasion from the West

                                   

Yalta 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin               Potsdam 1945, Attlee, Truman and Stalin

Cold War

Yalta and Potsdam 2

How were the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences Different?

Context

Yalta

• Held in the Crimea (Russia)
• Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin
• February 1945 – Germany not yet defeated

Potsdam

• Held in Germany
• Attlee, Truman, Stalin
• July 1945 – Germany had surrendered but Japan was not yet defeated

Germany

Yalta

• Agreed in principle to divide Germany into four zones to be occupied by Britain, France, USA and USSR

Potsdam

• Set up the four ‘zones of occupation’ – but there was open disagreement about the boundaries

Reparations

Yalta

• Set up a commission to look into reparations

Potsdam

• Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet Zone, plus 10% of industrial capacity unnecessary for the German peacetime economy of the western zones
• America and Britain thought this was too much

Eastern Europe

Yalta

• ‘Declaration of Liberated Europe’ (to set up democracies in East Europe)
• Set up Polish Government of National Unity (Stalin arrested the non-communists)

Potsdam

• Britain and USA were worried about Soviet power but still…
• Recognized the Polish government

Relations

Yalta

• Agreements on principles
• Some tension – Churchill wrote to Roosevelt that ‘Russia was a danger to the free world’

Potsdam

• Open disagreement about details
• Truman was ‘tired of babying the Soviets’ and determined to ‘get tough’ with the Russians

International Relations

Yalta

• Russia was invited to join the United Nations

Potsdam

• America was horrified that Russia might join the war against Japan
• Truman did not tell Stalin that he had the atomic bomb

Cold War

Salami Tactics

How did Communism take over Eastern Europe after 1945?  like slicing up salami

Bulgaria

• 1945 – a left-wing coalition (‘The Fatherland Front’) was elected
• 1946 – the Communists executed 15,000 opponents
• Tsar Simeon was driven into exile
• 1947 – the Communists won the election and adopted a Soviet-style government led by Dimitrov (trained in the USSR)

Poland

• 1945 – a coalition ‘Government of National Unity’ took power
• 1945 – Stalin arrested the non-Communist leaders
• 1945-47 – thousands of non-Communists were imprisoned
• 1947 – the Communist leader, Bierut (trained in the USSR) won an election and became head of state

Hungary

• 1945 – a coalition government took power – few Communists were elected
• Rakosi – (the Communists’ leader) got opposition parties banned
• Rakosi – got control of the police and set up the AVO
• Thousands of non-Communists were arrested
• By 1947 Rakosi had power (he is credited with the term salami tactics)

Romania

• 1945 – King Michael came back from exile and a left-wing coalition (‘the Plowman’s Front’) was elected
• 1946 – there was a campaign of violence against the non-Communist parties
• The Communists won the 1946 elections and forced King Michael to abdicate

Czechoslovakia

• 1945 – a coalition government
• the Communists (led by Gottwald) took over the radio, police and army
• 1947 – secret police arrested non-Communists
• 1948 – Gottwald organized demonstrations demanding Communism
• Masaryk ‘fell’ from a window and Gottwald took over

East Germany

• East Germany became the Russian zone completely under Russian control
• The Social Democrats merged with the Communist Party to form the Social Unity Party, which won the 1946 elections
• 1949 – the Russians named their zone the ‘German Democratic Republic’

Cold War

Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

What were the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan?

Greece

• After WWI Greece appeared to be ‘under threat’ from Communism
• Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past)
• In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and asked the USA for help

Communism

• Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was determined to take action
• He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece
• Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war

Doctrine

• Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation
• The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain Communism, but not push it back – Containment
• Offered assistance to ‘all free peoples’ resisting ‘attempted subjugation’

Marshall Plan

• Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a ‘breeding ground’ for Communism
• He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous again – to recover from the war
• US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid
• Total aid from 1948 – 1951 was close to $13 billion US

Just Being Helpful?

• Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a market for US exports
• Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent the spread of Communism
• Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support
• Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland

Success?

• 1948 – 1952 saw period of growth in European history
• Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels
• Forged North Atlantic alliances
• Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid
• Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared

Tension

• Aid was vital for European economic recovery
• However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern European countries under the USSR’s control from accepting it
• This created tension on both sides

Many historians differ on just how much credit should be given to Marshall Plan for Europe’s recovery.

Cold War

Berlin Blockade 1948

Why did the Blockade happen and what were the Consequences?

Yalta Background

• Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR, France, Britain and USA.  Berlin was similarly divided
• In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West Germany and West Berlin
• USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin

Stalin’s Concerns

• Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans and East Berliners
• He was angry that he wasn’t consulted about decisions – such as the new Deutschmark
• Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite Germany

Stalin’s Reaction

• June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between West Germany and West Berlin to be closed
• He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission
• US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalin’s first step in a take-over of Western Europe

Allied Reaction

• The Allies didn’t want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking a war, so they began to fly supplies in
• Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by September 1948

Consequences for USSR

• Stalin couldn’t just shoot the planes down
• He had to eventually back down – on May 12, 1949 he ended the blockade – it was a major embarrassment
• Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US.  Atomic testing was increased

Consequences for USA

• Seen as ‘proof’ that the USSR had plans to take over Europe
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a result
• Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat
• In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led ‘Warsaw Pact’ was formed

Berliners watching a C-54 land at Templehof Airport, 1948

Cold War

Khrushchev’s Soviet Union 1953-1964

What happened to the Soviet Union under Khrushchev?

De-Stalinization

• Feb 1956 – Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalin’s purges and cult of personality)
• Attacked image and reputation of Stalin
• More freedom for writers and artists
• Size and power of secret police reduced
• Political prisoners released

Agricultural Policies

• Aim was to produce more food
• Virgin Land Scheme – take fallow land and cultivate it using govt resources
• Introduce maize
• Small collective farms became independent
• Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created

Agricultural Problems

• Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not
• Virgin Land Scheme failed
• Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc)
• New collective farms did not work well

Industrial Policies

• Sovnarkhozy – Regional Economic Councils
• Controls on workers relaxed
• Decisions to be taken at a more regional level
• Ordered more luxury goods
• Developed Space program
• “What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?”

Industrial Problems

• Sovnarkhozy didn’t work
• Managers and workers were not used to the freedom
• Led to more bureaucracy
• Consumer goods sacrificed for space program
• 1961 slogan “Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat”
• “Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses” – housewife, 1990

Why did he Resign?

• Prices rose by 30%
• Agricultural policies had failed
• Industrial policies had failed
• Failed foreign policies – Cuba
• Embarrassment – UN shoe stamping incident during a speech
• Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many
• Forced to resign in 1964

Cold War

Khrushchev 1953 - 1964

What effect did Khrushchev have on the Cold War?

More Peaceful?

• Khrushchev said that he wanted ‘peaceful co-existence’

BUT

• By ‘peaceful co-existence’ he really meant ‘peaceful competition’

Friendlier?

• Khrushchev had a sense of humor and was always laughing and smiling

BUT

• He was NOT gentle and easy-going – Stalin had used him to run the terror purges after WWII

Gentler?

• In 1956, Khrushchev said that Stalin was a murderer, and he began to ‘destalinize’ Russia.  Political prisoners were set free and Beria (responsible for Stalin’s Great Purge) was executed

BUT

• ‘Destalinization’ did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from Russia

Summits?

• Khrushchev often met western leaders at ‘summit’ meetings

BUT

• Khrushchev loved to argue.  This often caused tension between leaders

Iron Curtain?

• In 1955 Khrushchev told Tito of Yugoslavia ‘there are different roads to communism’.  Western leaders thought this meant an end to the Iron curtain

BUT

• When communist countries went to far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the army (eg Hungary 1956)

Thaw?

• At first, the western powers hoped that this would be the start of a ‘thaw’ in the Cold War

BUT

• Khrushchev gave countries like Burma and Afghanistan economic aid if they supported Russia

Cold War

The Hungarian Uprising

What happened in Hungary in 1956?

Background

• In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary
• Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty
• Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting democracy

Khrushchev

• In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalin’s rule, suggesting that Soviet policy might be changing
• Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries like Hungary would be allowed to have self-determination

Overthrow

• In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown
• Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy

Red Army

• November 4, 1956 – Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control
• Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest
• Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored

Pleas for Help

• Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed
• Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance – but there was on US intervention
• Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed

Consequences

• Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders and Imre Nagy
• Showed Soviet policy – countries in her sphere of influence would stay in her sphere of influence
• USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR happy)

Cold War

The Berlin Wall 1961

How Significant was the Berlin Wall and Why was it Built?

Background

• At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had been)
• In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to ‘starve’ West Berlin into submission
• Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift

Differences

• Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel freely – live in the East and work in the West and vice versa
• Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a base for spying and sabotage

Problems

• In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated from working in West Berlin
• East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was recovering well
• Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to West Berlin

August 13, 1961

• Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in two
• People were trapped in either East or West Berlin
• The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts

Concrete Wall

• By August 17^th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete wall, split only by well guarded checkpoints
• From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross
• The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and Capitalism

Consequences

• In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the ‘West’ – they claimed Communist countries had to build a wall to imprison people
• However, there was very little the West could do to stop it – and the wall did serve its purpose

Cold War

Change in Relations from 1945-1962

How did the Superpower Relations Change from 1945 - 1962?

Allies to Enemies?

• USSR and USA were allies united against Nazi Germany
• Once WWII ended, any friendship thawed.  Some suggest wartime alliance was just a necessity for both sides
• By 1962, the two allies were on the brink of nuclear war

Alliances

• Following the Berlin Blockade (1948-49) tensions rose
• Saw creation of two alliances – North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Warsaw Pact

Arms Race

• Race between the superpowers to try and build more weapons than each other
• Development of a huge range of ever-increasing powerful weapons and equipment for war
• Vast sums of money were spent by both sides

Mutual Co-Existence

• Stalin died in 1953 and relations seemed to improve
• The Hungarian Crisis (1956) shoed the USA wouldn’t interfere directly in USSR territory
• Concept of ‘mutual co-existence’ – both accepted each other, as long as they didn’t interfere

Crises

• Series of crises rapidly changed the situation
• U2 incident (1960)
• Berlin Wall (1961)
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
• The increase in tension brought the world to the brink of war

After 1962

• Both sides realized how dangerous the situation had become
• After 1962 there was a gradual thawing of relations in a process that became known as Détente
• There were still serious issues, but both sides took steps to prevent similar situations again

Cold War

Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

What made the Cuban Missile Crisis the most Serious Incident of the Cold War?

Background

• In 1959 Fidel Castro’s rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in Cuba
• Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA
• USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist
• Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal

Nuclear Site Spotted

• In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a nuclear missile site in Cuba
• On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being built

ExComm Set Up

• US President Kennedy set up ‘ExComm’ a committee to decide what to do
• On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba
• He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade would be destroyed

On the Brink of War

• On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any missiles to be removed
• Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba
• The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war

Compromise

• On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the USA pulled out of Turkey
• Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to turn around

Consequences

• Major propaganda victory for USA – they looked to have ‘won’
• As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have backed down
• Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was set up providing immediate contact)

Cold War

Detente

1963ish-1979ish:  What was achieved during the era of Detente?

Reasons for Détente

• Both sides had reasons to improve relations
• US fighting in Vietnam – needed to slow arms race to reduce burden on economy
• USSR concerned about Communist China
• Both sides wanted to reduce economic expenditure

Better Relations

• 1963 – Hotline set up; nuclear test ban Treaty banned tests above ground
• 1968 – Non-proliferation treaty
• 1969 – Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began – reducing mid-range nuclear weapons (SALT)

Cooperation

• 1972 – President Nixon visits Moscow and SALT 1 Treaty signed
• 1972 – Agreements between East and West Germany signed
• 1975 – Space – US astronauts and Soviet Cosmonauts docked together in space.

Helsinki Accords

• August 1975
• Helsinki Agreement signed by 35 countries (including USSR and USA)
• Declaration of Human Rights
• Current borders of Europe accepted
• Demonstration of commitment to improve relations

SALT 2?

• 1979 – SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles.
• Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
• USSR claimed they had been asked to ‘restore order’.  US saw it as an invasion and supported Afghan rebels
• Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko

Conclusions

• Mistrust and suspicion continued during Détente, but this was a period that generally saw cooperation and agreement
• Both sides had much to gain from increased cooperation – such as savings from a slower arms race and also trade benefits

Cold War

Gorbachev’s Soviet Union

What happened to the Soviet Union under Gorbachev?

Political Problems

• Instability – Soviet Union had four leaders in four years
• Brezhnev’s era was one of repression
• Corruption
• Stalin’s generation was being replaced by more liberal men
• Gorbachev didn’t know how serious these problems were

Economic Problems

• Soviet Union was virtually bankrupt
• Industry was backward and old fashioned, inefficient
• Arms Race – military commitments in Eastern Europe and nuclear arsenal were very expensive
• Thriving black market
• Chernobyl 1985 – highlighted all these problems

Social Problems

• 1980 Soviet Union had highest alcoholic rate in world – 10% workers drunk at any time
• Low standard of living
• Luxury goods were scarce and unaffordable

Gorbachev’s Aims

• End the Cold War
• Pull Red Army out of Afghanistan
• End Soviet Union’s commitment to Eastern Europe
• All this was to save communism, not destroy it
• Policies were:

                        Glasnost – openness, freedom of information

                        Perestroika – economic restructuring

Why did Gorbachev Fail?

• Gorbachev had no real detailed plan, only goals
• Too little, too late
• Help from the G7 never came
• By late 1980s Red Army was no longer being paid
• Gorbachev was not prepared to use force to keep the Soviet Union together

Why did Gorbachev Resign?

• People wanted more reforms
• Allowing Eastern Europe to break away encouraged the break up of the Soviet Union
• Gorbachev refused to use force against ethnic uprisings
• Gorbachev became isolated politically
• Coup of August 1991 – Yeltsin
• By Dec 1991, Gorbachev was president of nothing

Cold War

End of the Cold War

How and Why Did The Cold War End in 1989?  (Is there a new cold war?)

Afghanistan

• USSR faced huge pressure over invasion
• They feared Islamic fundamentalists (Mujahedin) would take over Afghanistan
• What was meant to be a brief invasion turned into their equivalent of Vietnam
• Huge financial burden – verge of bankruptcy

gee, see any current correlations?

Gorbachev and Reagan

• New USSR leader Gorbachev realized drastic changes were needed
• Supporting other Communist countries, competing in the arms race and huge military costs were too much for Russian economy to ‘bear’ – get it?
• US spent huge amounts on defense in an effort to finally ‘win’ the arms race

Friendship

• President Reagan came to power with strong anti-Communist stance (e.g. massive defense spending plans)
• Yet the two opposing leaders got along well together – suggested possibilities of closer relations

Meetings

• Gorbachev and Reagan met in Geneva (1985) and Reykjavik (1986)
• INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty) signed in 1987 – actual destruction of a range of nuclear weapons

Change

• 1989 saw the break-up of the Soviet’s ‘Sphere of Influence’ over Eastern Europe
• Poland 1989 – protests led to free elections
• Gorbachev refused to send in Red Army to squash opposition
• This sent a signal to other Eastern European countries

End of the Cold War

• Borders began to open and Communist governments resigned
• In 1989 President Bush and Gorbachev met off Malta and declared the Cold War over
• In November 1989 the Berlin Wall was torn down
• Soviet Union collapsed, Gorbachev resigned on Dec 25, 1991

Cold War initiatives / dates to know…

Strategic Defense Initiative (1983)

MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)

Containment 1947-1953

Escalation and Crisis 1953-1962

Détente 1963-1979